Notes 笔记
普物 I 期中复习提纲(力学全覆盖版)
General Physics I Midterm Review Outline / 普物 I 期中复习提纲(Mechanics 讲义全覆盖版)#
Main reference / 主参考:普物I/reference books/mechanics_0306.pdf
Supplement / 补充参考:slides课件、homework作业、midterm历年期中卷。
Goal / 目标:按教学参考书General Physics I Classical Mechanics的章节尽量完整覆盖知识点,同时保留期中常考解题方法。
How To Use This Outline / 使用方式#
- First pass / 第一遍:按 Chapter 1-10 顺序扫知识点,补齐概念。
- Second pass / 第二遍:只看
Problem Methods / 解题方法和Formula Checklist / 公式清单。 - Final pass / 考前最后一遍:看每章
Vocabulary / 生词,确保英文题干能读懂。
Reference Book Coverage Map / 参考书覆盖地图#
| Book chapter / 讲义章节 | Sections / 小节 | Covered here / 本提纲位置 |
|---|---|---|
| 1 Kinematics / 运动学 | 1.1 1D motion; 1.2 vectors; 1.3 higher-dimensional motion; 1.4 frame of reference | Ch. 1 |
| 2 Newton's Laws / 牛顿定律 | three laws; inertial/non-inertial frames; applications; drag | Ch. 2 |
| 3 Work and Energy / 功和能 | generic forces; work; power; work-energy theorem; potential; conservation; equilibrium | Ch. 3 |
| 4 Momentum / 动量 | momentum from Newton's law; conservation; collisions; many-particle system | Ch. 4 |
| 5 Gravitation / 万有引力 | Kepler's laws; Newtonian gravity; satellites; escape speed | Ch. 5 |
| 6 Rigid Bodies / 刚体 | rotational kinematics; rotational dynamics; rolling | Ch. 6 |
| 7 Angular Momentum / 角动量 | particle angular momentum; torque; conservation; rigid bodies | Ch. 7 |
| 8 Simple Harmonic Motion / 简谐运动 | equilibrium; SHM; stable equilibrium; damped; forced; coupled; molecules and solids | Ch. 8 |
| 9 Wave Motion / 波动 | wave function; superposition; reflection; waves in solid; wave equation | Ch. 9 |
| 10 Sinusoidal Waves / 正弦波 | sinusoidal waves; energy transfer; beating; standing waves; Fourier; Doppler | Ch. 10 |
Ch. 1 Kinematics / 运动学#
1.1 Motion in One Dimension / 一维运动#
Knowledge Points / 知识点
- Particle approximation / 质点近似:object size is negligible compared with other length scales / 物体尺寸相对问题尺度可忽略。
- Position / 位置:$x(t)$; displacement / 位移:
$$
\Delta x=x_f-x_i
$$
- Distance / 路程:path length / 路径长度,总是非负;displacement / 位移可正可负。
- Average velocity and speed / 平均速度与平均速率:
$$
\bar v=\frac{\Delta x}{\Delta t},
\qquad
\bar s=\frac{\text{distance}}{\text{time}}
$$
- Instantaneous velocity and acceleration / 瞬时速度与加速度:
$$
v=\frac{dx}{dt},
\qquad
a=\frac{dv}{dt}=\frac{d^2x}{dt^2}
$$
- Integral relations / 积分关系:
$$
v(t)=v_0+\int a(t)\,dt,
\qquad
x(t)=x_0+\int v(t)\,dt
$$
- Constant acceleration / 匀加速:
$$
\begin{aligned}
v&=v_0+at,\\
x&=x_0+v_0t+\frac{1}{2}at^2,\\
v^2&=v_0^2+2a(x-x_0).
\end{aligned}
$$
- SI units and dimensions / 国际单位与量纲:length \(L\), mass \(M\), time \(T\); dimension check / 量纲检查是防错工具。
Problem Methods / 解题方法
- For function problems / 函数题:differentiate to get velocity and acceleration / 求导得速度、加速度。
- For graph problems / 图像题:slope gives derivative / 斜率给导数;area gives integral / 面积给积分。
- For constant acceleration / 匀加速题:先判断 $a$ 是否常量,不要乱用匀加速公式。
- Always attach units / 最后补单位;中间统一化成 SI units / 国际单位。
1.2 Vectors / 矢量#
Knowledge Points / 知识点
- Vector / 矢量:has magnitude and direction and obeys vector algebra / 有大小方向且满足矢量代数。
- Scalar / 标量:has magnitude only / 只有大小。
- Unit vector / 单位矢量:
$$
\hat{\mathbf A}=\frac{\mathbf A}{|\mathbf A|}
$$
- Vector addition / 矢量加法:head-to-tail rule / 首尾相接法;component addition / 分量相加。
- Cartesian components and magnitude / 笛卡尔分量与大小:
$$
\mathbf A=A_x\hat{\mathbf i}+A_y\hat{\mathbf j}+A_z\hat{\mathbf k},
\qquad
|\mathbf A|=\sqrt{A_x^2+A_y^2+A_z^2}
$$
- Polar coordinates / 极坐标:
$$
x=r\cos\phi,
\qquad
y=r\sin\phi
$$
- Polar unit vectors / 极坐标单位矢量:
$$
\hat{\mathbf u}_r\quad(\text{radial / 径向}),
\qquad
\hat{\mathbf u}_\phi\quad(\text{tangential / 切向})
$$
Their directions change with $\phi$ / 方向随角度变化。
Problem Methods / 解题方法
- Decompose first / 先分解:把矢量写成分量再算。
- Use polar coordinates for circular/central motion / 圆周或中心力问题优先考虑极坐标。
- Be careful with time-dependent unit vectors / 注意随时间变化的单位矢量,极坐标不能像固定基矢那样直接忽略导数。
1.3 Motion in Higher Dimensions / 高维运动#
Knowledge Points / 知识点
- Position, velocity, acceleration vectors / 位置、速度、加速度矢量:
$$
\mathbf r=x\hat{\mathbf i}+y\hat{\mathbf j}+z\hat{\mathbf k},
\qquad
\mathbf v=\frac{d\mathbf r}{dt},
\qquad
\mathbf a=\frac{d\mathbf v}{dt}
$$
- Component equations / 分量方程:$x$, $y$, $z$ directions are independent when axes are orthogonal / 正交方向可分别处理。
- Projectile motion / 抛体运动:when air resistance is ignored / 忽略空气阻力,
$$
a_x=0,
\qquad
a_y=-g
$$
- Circular motion / 圆周运动:
$$
a_r=-\frac{v^2}{R}=-\omega^2R,
\qquad
a_t=R\alpha
$$
Problem Methods / 解题方法
- Vector equation first / 先写矢量式,再投影。
- For projectile motion / 抛体运动:水平匀速,竖直匀加速。
- For circular motion / 圆周运动:径向负责速度方向变化,切向负责速率变化。
1.4 Frame of Reference / 参考系#
Knowledge Points / 知识点
- Frame of reference / 参考系:observer + coordinate system + clock / 观察者、坐标系、时钟。
- Galilean transformation / 伽利略变换:if $S'$ moves with velocity $\mathbf V$ relative to $S$,
$$
\mathbf r=\mathbf r'+\mathbf Vt,
\qquad
\mathbf v=\mathbf v'+\mathbf V,
\qquad
\mathbf a=\mathbf a'
$$
- Inertial frame / 惯性系:Newton's laws hold without fictitious forces / 牛顿定律可直接使用。
Problem Methods / 解题方法
- Choose the easiest inertial frame / 选择最方便的惯性系。
- Relative motion problems / 相对运动题:先写 $r_A - r_B$ 或速度关系。
- Do not use Newton's second law directly in accelerating frames unless adding fictitious force / 加速参考系要加伪力。
Vocabulary / 生词
- kinematics:运动学
- dynamics:动力学
- particle approximation:质点近似
- displacement:位移
- distance:路程
- instantaneous:瞬时的
- derivative:导数
- integral:积分
- dimension:量纲
- vector:矢量
- scalar:标量
- unit vector:单位矢量
- Cartesian coordinate:笛卡尔坐标
- polar coordinate:极坐标
- frame of reference:参考系
- Galilean transformation:伽利略变换
Ch. 2 Newton's Laws of Motion / 牛顿运动定律#
Knowledge Points / 知识点#
- Newton's first law / 牛顿第一定律:no net external force means constant velocity / 无合外力则速度恒定。
- Inertia / 惯性:resistance to change of velocity / 抵抗速度改变的性质。
- Newton's second and third laws / 牛顿第二、第三定律:
$$
\sum\mathbf F=m\mathbf a,
\qquad
\mathbf F_{12}=-\mathbf F_{21}
$$
- Mass vs weight / 质量与重量:mass is intrinsic / 质量是物体属性;weight is gravitational force / 重量是重力。
- Non-inertial force / 非惯性力、伪力:in frame accelerating with $\mathbf a_{\rm frame}$, add
$$
\mathbf F_{\rm fictitious}=-m\mathbf a_{\rm frame}
$$
- Galilean invariance / 伽利略不变性:Newton's second law has the same form in all inertial frames / 牛顿第二定律在各惯性系同形式。
- Common forces / 常见力:
- gravity / 重力:$mg$
- normal force / 支持力:perpendicular to surface / 垂直接触面
- tension / 张力:along string / 沿绳
- friction / 摩擦力:static $f_{s} \le \mu_{s} N$; kinetic $f_{k} = \mu_{k} N$
- drag / 阻力:$R = bv$ or $R = cv^2$, opposite velocity / 方向与速度相反
- Terminal speed / 终端速度:drag balances gravity / 阻力与重力平衡时速度不再增加。
Problem Methods / 解题方法#
- Choose inertial frame and axes / 选择惯性系和坐标轴。
- Draw a free-body diagram for each object / 每个物体单独画受力图。
- Write Newton's second law in components / 分量写牛顿第二定律。
$$
\sum F_x=ma_x,
\qquad
\sum F_y=ma_y
$$
- Add constraints / 加约束:same rope tension if massless rope and frictionless pulley / 理想绳滑轮张力相同;same acceleration magnitude for connected bodies / 连接体加速度大小相关。
- For circular motion / 圆周运动:radial equation often
$$
\sum F_r=\frac{mv^2}{r}
$$
- For drag / 阻力题:写微分方程,如 falling with linear drag:
$$
mg-bv=m\frac{dv}{dt},
\qquad
v_t=\frac{mg}{b}
$$
Vocabulary / 生词#
- force:力
- net external force:合外力
- inertia:惯性
- inertial frame:惯性系
- non-inertial frame:非惯性系
- fictitious force:伪力
- Galilean invariance:伽利略不变性
- tension:张力
- normal force:支持力
- friction:摩擦
- drag force:阻力
- terminal speed:终端速度
Ch. 3 Work and Energy / 功和能量#
3.1 Generic Forces / 一般力下的运动#
Knowledge Points / 知识点
- If force depends on position / 若力依赖位置:
$$
a=v\frac{dv}{dx},
\qquad
m\frac{dv}{dt}=F(x)
\quad\Longrightarrow\quad
mv\frac{dv}{dx}=F(x)
$$
- If force depends on time / 若力依赖时间:integrate acceleration over time / 对时间积分。
- If force depends on velocity / 若力依赖速度:solve differential equation / 解微分方程。
3.2 Work and Power / 功和功率#
Knowledge Points / 知识点
- Work and power / 功和功率:
$$
W=\int \mathbf F\cdot d\mathbf r,
\qquad
W=Fd\cos\theta,
\qquad
P=\frac{dW}{dt}=\mathbf F\cdot\mathbf v
$$
- Work is scalar / 功是标量;positive work increases kinetic energy / 正功增加动能。
3.3 Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem / 动能定理#
- Kinetic energy and work-kinetic theorem / 动能与动能定理:
$$
K=\frac{1}{2}mv^2,
\qquad
W_{\rm net}=\Delta K
$$
3.4-3.6 Potential and Energy Conservation / 势能与能量守恒#
- Conservative force / 保守力:work independent of path / 做功与路径无关。
- Potential energy and force / 势能与力:
$$
\Delta U=-W_{\rm conservative},
\qquad
F_x=-\frac{dU}{dx},
\qquad
\mathbf F=-\nabla U
$$
- Common potentials / 常见势能:
$$
U_g=mgy,
\qquad
F=-kx,
\qquad
U_s=\frac{1}{2}kx^2
$$
- Mechanical energy and non-conservative work / 机械能与非保守力做功:
$$
E=K+U,
\qquad
\Delta K+\Delta U=W_{\rm nc}
$$
3.7 Equilibrium / 平衡#
- Equilibrium / 平衡:
$$
F=0,
\qquad
\frac{dU}{dx}=0
$$
- Stability / 稳定性:
$$
\begin{cases}
\dfrac{d^2U}{dx^2}>0, & \text{stable equilibrium},\\[4pt]
\dfrac{d^2U}{dx^2}<0, & \text{unstable equilibrium}.
\end{cases}
$$
- Neutral equilibrium / 随遇平衡:nearby potential nearly flat / 附近势能近似平坦。
Problem Methods / 解题方法#
- Ask first: force method or energy method? / 先判断用力还是能量。
- For displacement-dependent force / 位移相关力:$W = \int F dx$。
- For path-independent force / 保守力:use potential energy / 用势能。
- For friction / 有摩擦:write $W_{\rm friction}$ explicitly / 显式写摩擦做功。
- For equilibrium / 平衡题:solve $dU/dx=0$; judge stability by second derivative / 二阶导判断稳定性。
Vocabulary / 生词#
- work:功
- power:功率
- kinetic energy:动能
- potential energy:势能
- conservative force:保守力
- non-conservative force:非保守力
- path independent:路径无关
- equilibrium:平衡
- stable:稳定的
- unstable:不稳定的
Ch. 4 Momentum / 动量#
Knowledge Points / 知识点#
- Momentum, Newton's second law, and impulse / 动量、牛顿第二定律和冲量:
$$
\mathbf p=m\mathbf v,
\qquad
\mathbf F_{\rm net}=\frac{d\mathbf p}{dt},
\qquad
\mathbf J=\int\mathbf F\,dt=\Delta\mathbf p
$$
- Conservation of momentum / 动量守恒:if total external force or impulse is zero / 外力或外冲量为零。
- Inelastic collision / 非弹性碰撞:kinetic energy not conserved / 动能不守恒。
- Perfectly inelastic collision / 完全非弹性碰撞:objects stick together / 碰后粘在一起。
- Elastic collision / 弹性碰撞:momentum and kinetic energy both conserved / 动量、动能都守恒。
- Center of mass and center-of-mass motion / 质心与质心运动:
$$
\mathbf R_{\rm cm}=\frac{\sum_i m_i\mathbf r_i}{M},
\qquad
M\mathbf a_{\rm cm}=\mathbf F_{\rm ext}
$$
- Internal forces / 内力:cancel in total momentum if Newton's third law holds / 对总动量相互抵消。
Problem Methods / 解题方法#
- Choose system / 选系统:判断哪些力是外力。
- Use conservation component-wise / 分方向使用守恒:外冲量为零的方向才守恒。
- Collision sequence / 碰撞顺序:先动量,再看是否能量守恒。
- For many-particle systems / 多粒子系统:用质心方程简化整体运动。
- For variable-mass-looking problems / 类变质量题:小心系统边界和动量流。
Vocabulary / 生词#
- momentum:动量
- impulse:冲量
- collision:碰撞
- elastic collision:弹性碰撞
- inelastic collision:非弹性碰撞
- center of mass:质心
- internal force:内力
- external force:外力
Ch. 5 The Law of Gravitation / 万有引力定律#
Knowledge Points / 知识点#
- Kepler's first law / 开普勒第一定律:planet orbits are ellipses with the Sun at one focus / 行星绕太阳椭圆运动,太阳在焦点。
- Kepler's second law / 开普勒第二定律:equal areas in equal times / 相等时间扫过相等面积。
- Kepler's third law / 开普勒第三定律:$T^2 \propto a^3$ / 周期平方与半长轴三次方成正比。
- Universal gravitation and gravitational field / 万有引力与引力场:
$$
F=G\frac{m_1m_2}{r^2},
\qquad
g=\frac{GM}{r^2}
$$
- Shell theorem idea / 球壳定理思想:outside a spherical mass distribution acts like point mass at center / 球外等效为中心点质量。
- Satellite circular orbit / 卫星圆轨道:
$$
\frac{GMm}{r^2}=\frac{mv^2}{r}
$$
- Orbital speed, period, potential energy, and escape speed / 轨道速度、周期、势能、逃逸速度:
$$
v=\sqrt{\frac{GM}{r}},
\qquad
T=2\pi\sqrt{\frac{r^3}{GM}},
\qquad
U=-\frac{GMm}{r},
\qquad
v_{\rm esc}=\sqrt{\frac{2GM}{R}}
$$
Problem Methods / 解题方法#
- Circular orbit / 圆轨道:set gravity equal to centripetal force / 万有引力提供向心力。
- Escape problem / 逃逸题:set final energy at infinity to zero / 无穷远处总能量取零。
- Satellite period / 卫星周期:combine $v = 2\pi r/T$ with gravity equation。
- Central-force small perturbation / 中心力小扰动:write effective potential / 写等效势。
Vocabulary / 生词#
- gravitation:引力
- universal gravitation:万有引力
- orbit:轨道
- ellipse:椭圆
- focus:焦点
- satellite:卫星
- escape speed:逃逸速度
- gravitational potential energy:引力势能
Ch. 6 Rigid Bodies / 刚体#
6.1 Rotational Kinematics / 转动运动学#
- Rigid body / 刚体:distances between all mass elements remain fixed / 各质点间距离不变。
- Angular displacement / 角位移:$\theta$。
- Angular velocity / 角速度:$\omega = d\theta/dt$。
- Angular acceleration / 角加速度:$\alpha = d\omega/dt$。
- Constant angular acceleration / 匀角加速度公式:
$$
\begin{aligned}
\omega&=\omega_0+\alpha t,\\
\theta&=\theta_0+\omega_0t+\frac{1}{2}\alpha t^2,\\
\omega^2&=\omega_0^2+2\alpha(\theta-\theta_0).
\end{aligned}
$$
- Linear-angular relations / 线量角量关系:
$$
s=r\theta,
\qquad
v_t=r\omega,
\qquad
a_t=r\alpha,
\qquad
a_r=r\omega^2
$$
6.2 Rotational Dynamics / 转动动力学#
- Torque and moment of inertia / 力矩与转动惯量:
$$
\boldsymbol\tau=\mathbf r\times\mathbf F,
\qquad
\tau=rF\sin\theta,
\qquad
I=\int r^2\,dm
$$
- Rotation dynamics, energy, work, power / 转动动力学、能量、功、功率:
$$
\sum\tau=I\alpha,
\qquad
K=\frac{1}{2}I\omega^2,
\qquad
W=\int\tau\,d\theta,
\qquad
P=\tau\omega
$$
- Parallel-axis theorem / 平行轴定理:
$$
I=I_{\rm cm}+Md^2
$$
- Common moments of inertia / 常见转动惯量:
$$
\begin{array}{c|c}
\text{object / 物体} & I\\
\hline
\text{point mass / 质点} & mr^2\\
\text{hoop / 圆环} & MR^2\\
\text{solid disk or cylinder / 实心圆盘或圆柱} & \frac{1}{2}MR^2\\
\text{solid sphere / 实心球} & \frac{2}{5}MR^2\\
\text{thin spherical shell / 薄球壳} & \frac{2}{3}MR^2\\
\text{rod about center / 杆绕中心} & \frac{1}{12}ML^2\\
\text{rod about end / 杆绕端点} & \frac{1}{3}ML^2
\end{array}
$$
6.3 Rolling / 滚动#
- Rolling without slipping and rolling kinetic energy / 无滑动滚动与滚动动能:
$$
v_{\rm cm}=R\omega,
\qquad
a_{\rm cm}=R\alpha,
\qquad
K=\frac{1}{2}Mv_{\rm cm}^2+\frac{1}{2}I_{\rm cm}\omega^2
$$
- Static friction in rolling / 滚动中的静摩擦:may do no work for pure rolling on fixed ground / 对固定地面纯滚动可不做功,但提供力矩。
Problem Methods / 解题方法#
- Separate translation and rotation / 平动和转动分开写。
- For rolling incline / 斜面滚动:
$$
Mg\sin\theta-f=Ma,
\qquad
fR=I\alpha,
\qquad
a=R\alpha
$$
- For pulleys / 滑轮题:block equation + pulley torque equation + no-slip string constraint。
- Use energy when rolling constraint holds / 无滑动滚动且静摩擦不耗能时可用能量。
- If surface is frictionless / 光滑面:no torque about CM, angular speed may remain constant / 对质心无力矩,角速度不变。
Vocabulary / 生词#
- rigid body:刚体
- rotational kinematics:转动运动学
- torque:力矩
- moment of inertia:转动惯量
- parallel-axis theorem:平行轴定理
- rolling:滚动
- rolling without slipping:无滑动滚动
- angular acceleration:角加速度
Ch. 7 Angular Momentum / 角动量#
Knowledge Points / 知识点#
- Angular momentum, torque, and theorem / 角动量、力矩与定理:
$$
\mathbf L=\mathbf r\times\mathbf p,
\qquad
\boldsymbol\tau=\mathbf r\times\mathbf F,
\qquad
\boldsymbol\tau_{\rm net}=\frac{d\mathbf L}{dt}
$$
- Conservation of angular momentum / 角动量守恒:if net external torque is zero / 合外力矩为零。
- System of particles / 质点系:internal torques cancel under central internal forces / 中心内力下内力矩抵消。
- Rigid body fixed-axis angular momentum / 刚体定轴角动量:
$$
L=I\omega
$$
- Central force / 中心力:torque about center is zero, so angular momentum is conserved / 关于力心力矩为零,角动量守恒。
Problem Methods / 解题方法#
- Choose origin / 选参考点:角动量和力矩都依赖参考点。
- If force passes through origin / 若力过原点:torque is zero / 力矩为零。
- Use angular momentum conservation for sudden events / 突然事件、碰撞、径向冲击常用角动量守恒。
- For rigid bodies / 刚体题:connect
$$
\tau=I\alpha,
\qquad
L=I\omega,
\qquad
K=\frac{1}{2}I\omega^2
$$
Vocabulary / 生词#
- angular momentum:角动量
- torque:力矩
- external torque:外力矩
- central force:中心力
- fixed axis:定轴
- conservation:守恒
Ch. 8 Simple Harmonic Motion / 简谐运动#
8.1 Equilibrium / 平衡#
- Equilibrium of point mass and extended body / 质点与刚体平衡:
$$
\sum\mathbf F=0,
\qquad
\sum\tau=0
$$
- Static equilibrium / 静力平衡:linear and angular acceleration both zero, object at rest / 线加速度和角加速度为零且静止。
8.2 Harmonic Oscillator and SHM / 谐振子与简谐运动#
- Hooke's law, SHM equation, and solution / 胡克定律、简谐方程与解:
$$
F=-kx,
\qquad
m\ddot x=-kx,
\qquad
\ddot x+\omega^2x=0
$$
$$
\omega=\sqrt{\frac{k}{m}},
\qquad
x(t)=A\cos(\omega t+\phi)
$$
- Velocity and acceleration / 速度与加速度:
$$
v=-A\omega\sin(\omega t+\phi),
\qquad
a=-\omega^2x
$$
- Energy / 能量:
$$
E=\frac{1}{2}kA^2
=\frac{1}{2}mv^2+\frac{1}{2}kx^2
$$
8.3 Motion Near Stable Equilibrium / 稳定平衡附近的小振动#
- Taylor expansion / 泰勒展开:
$$
U(x)\approx U(x_0)+\frac{1}{2}U''(x_0)(x-x_0)^2
$$
- Effective spring constant and small oscillation frequency / 等效劲度系数与小振动频率:
$$
k_{\rm eff}=U''(x_0),
\qquad
\omega=\sqrt{\frac{k_{\rm eff}}{m}}
$$
- Pendulum small angle / 单摆小角:
$$
\ddot\theta+\frac{g}{L}\theta=0,
\qquad
\omega=\sqrt{\frac{g}{L}}
$$
8.4 Damped Oscillator / 阻尼振动#
- Damping force and equation / 阻尼力与方程:
$$
F_d=-bv,
\qquad
m\ddot x+b\dot x+kx=0
$$
- Underdamped / 欠阻尼:oscillates with decaying amplitude / 振幅衰减但仍振动。
- Critical damping / 临界阻尼:returns fastest without oscillating / 不振荡最快回平衡。
- Overdamped / 过阻尼:no oscillation, slow return / 不振荡且回归慢。
- Damping reduces mechanical energy / 阻尼使机械能耗散。
8.5 Forced Oscillator / 受迫振动#
- Driving force and equation / 驱动力与方程:
$$
F(t)=F_0\cos(\omega_d t),
\qquad
m\ddot x+b\dot x+kx=F_0\cos(\omega_d t)
$$
- Transient response / 暂态响应:depends on initial condition and decays / 与初始条件有关并衰减。
- Steady-state response / 稳态响应:oscillates at driving frequency / 以驱动频率振动。
- Resonance / 共振:amplitude becomes large when driving frequency is near natural frequency / 驱动频率接近固有频率时振幅大。
8.6 Coupled Oscillators and Normal Modes / 耦合振子与简正模#
- Coupled oscillator / 耦合振子:motion of one coordinate affects another / 坐标间相互影响。
- Normal mode / 简正模:all parts oscillate at same frequency with fixed relative amplitude and phase / 各部分同频且相对振幅相位固定。
- In-phase mode / 同相模:coordinates move together / 同向运动。
- Out-of-phase mode / 反相模:coordinates move oppositely / 反向运动。
- General motion / 一般运动:superposition of normal modes / 简正模叠加。
8.7 Molecules and Solids / 分子与固体#
- Around potential minimum / 势能极小值附近:interatomic potential can be approximated as harmonic / 原子间势可近似为谐振子。
- Elastic properties / 弹性性质 come from microscopic restoring forces / 来自微观恢复力。
- Young's modulus / 杨氏模量:stretch/compression stiffness / 拉伸压缩刚度。
- Shear modulus / 剪切模量:shear stiffness / 抗剪刚度。
- Bulk modulus / 体积模量:compression stiffness / 抗体积压缩刚度。
Problem Methods / 解题方法#
- Identify equilibrium / 找平衡点。
- Linearize / 线性化:small angle, small displacement, ignore higher-order terms / 小量近似,忽略高阶项。
- Match to SHM form / 化为 $q'' + \omega^2 q = 0$。
- For coupled oscillators / 耦合振子:write matrix equations or add/subtract equations to find normal coordinates / 写矩阵或加减方程找简正坐标。
- For forced/damped systems / 阻尼受迫:先区分 natural frequency, driving frequency, damping / 区分固有频率、驱动频率、阻尼。
Vocabulary / 生词#
- simple harmonic motion:简谐运动
- oscillator:振子
- damping:阻尼
- damped oscillator:阻尼振子
- forced oscillator:受迫振子
- resonance:共振
- transient:暂态的
- steady state:稳态
- normal mode:简正模
- in-phase:同相
- out-of-phase:反相
- Young's modulus:杨氏模量
- shear modulus:剪切模量
- bulk modulus:体积模量
Ch. 9 Wave Motion / 波动#
9.1-9.2 Introduction and Wave Function / 波的引入与波函数#
- Wave / 波:propagation of disturbance and energy through a medium / 扰动和能量在介质中传播。
- Mechanical wave / 机械波:needs medium / 需要介质。
- Transverse wave / 横波:disturbance perpendicular to propagation direction / 振动方向垂直传播方向。
- Longitudinal wave / 纵波:disturbance parallel to propagation direction / 振动方向平行传播方向。
- Wave function / 波函数:$y(x,t)$ or $u(x,t)$ describes displacement / 描述介质位移。
- Traveling wave forms / 行波形式:
$$
f(x-vt)\quad(\text{right-moving}),
\qquad
f(x+vt)\quad(\text{left-moving})
$$
9.3 Superposition and Interference / 叠加与干涉#
- Superposition principle / 叠加原理:in linear medium, resultant displacement is algebraic sum / 线性介质中位移代数相加。
- Constructive interference / 相长干涉:waves reinforce / 波增强。
- Destructive interference / 相消干涉:waves cancel partly or completely / 波相互抵消。
9.4 Transmission and Reflection / 透射与反射#
- Reflection / 反射:wave returns at boundary / 波在边界返回。
- Transmission / 透射:wave continues into another medium / 波进入另一介质。
- Fixed end reflection / 固定端反射:inverted pulse / 脉冲反相。
- Free end reflection / 自由端反射:not inverted / 不反相。
- Boundary condition / 边界条件 determines phase / 边界条件决定反射相位。
9.5 Waves in a Solid / 固体中的波#
- Atomic chain model / 原子链模型:atoms connected by effective springs / 原子由等效弹簧连接。
- Continuum approximation / 连续介质近似:wavelength much larger than atomic spacing / 波长远大于原子间距。
- Longitudinal wave in solid / 固体纵波:displacement along propagation direction / 位移沿传播方向。
- Wave speed increases with stiffness and decreases with mass density / 波速随刚度增大而增大,随密度增大而减小。
9.6 Linear Wave Equation / 线性波动方程#
- Linear wave equation / 线性波动方程:
$$
\frac{\partial^2y}{\partial t^2}
=v^2\frac{\partial^2y}{\partial x^2}
$$
- String transverse wave speed / 弦横波速度:
$$
v=\sqrt{\frac{T}{\mu}}
$$
- Derivation idea / 推导思路:take small string element $dx$; use vertical tension component difference / 取小绳元,利用张力竖直分量差。
Problem Methods / 解题方法#
- Identify wave direction from argument / 由函数自变量判断方向:$x-vt$ 右行,$x + vt$ 左行。
- To derive wave equation / 推导波动方程:小段受力 + 牛顿第二定律 + 小角近似。
- Reflection questions / 反射题:write incident plus reflected wave and apply boundary condition / 入射波加反射波并套边界条件。
- If medium parameters vary / 若介质参数变化:波速和波形可能随位置变,正弦波不一定仍是解。
Vocabulary / 生词#
- wave:波
- medium:介质
- transverse wave:横波
- longitudinal wave:纵波
- wave function:波函数
- superposition:叠加
- interference:干涉
- constructive:相长的
- destructive:相消的
- reflection:反射
- transmission:透射
- boundary condition:边界条件
- continuum approximation:连续介质近似
Ch. 10 Sinusoidal Waves / 正弦波#
10.1 Sinusoidal Wave Function / 正弦波函数#
- Sinusoidal wave / 正弦波:
$$
y=A\sin(kx-\omega t+\phi)
\quad\text{or}\quad
y=A\cos(kx-\omega t+\phi)
$$
- Amplitude / 振幅:$A$。
- Wave number / 波数:
$$
k=\frac{2\pi}{\lambda}
$$
- Wavelength / 波长:$\lambda$。
- Angular frequency, period, and wave speed / 角频率、周期、波速:
$$
\omega=2\pi f,
\qquad
T=\frac{1}{f},
\qquad
v=\frac{\omega}{k}=\lambda f
$$
- Medium particles perform SHM / 介质质点做简谐运动,但波形传播 / 质点振动,波传播。
10.2 Energy Transfer / 能量传输#
- Kinetic energy density / 动能密度:
$$
u_K=\frac{1}{2}\mu
\left(\frac{\partial y}{\partial t}\right)^2
$$
- Potential energy density / 势能密度:from stretching of string / 来自弦被拉伸。
- Average energy density / 平均能量密度 for sinusoidal string wave:
$$
\bar u\propto \mu\omega^2A^2
$$
- Energy propagates with wave / 能量随波传播。
10.3 Interference and Beating / 干涉与拍#
- Same frequency and direction / 同频同向叠加:resultant amplitude depends on phase difference / 合振幅取决于相位差。
- Interference conditions / 干涉条件:
$$
\Delta\phi=2n\pi
\quad(\text{constructive}),
\qquad
\Delta\phi=(2n+1)\pi
\quad(\text{destructive})
$$
- Beating / 拍:two close frequencies superpose / 两个接近频率叠加。
- Beat frequency / 拍频:
$$
f_{\rm beat}=|f_1-f_2|
$$
10.4 Standing Waves / 驻波#
- Standing wave / 驻波:two equal-amplitude waves traveling opposite directions / 两列等幅反向波叠加。
- Typical form / 典型形式:
$$
y=2A\sin(kx)\cos(\omega t)
$$
- Node / 波节:always zero displacement / 位移恒为零。
- Antinode / 波腹:maximum amplitude / 振幅最大。
- String fixed at both ends / 两端固定弦:
$$
\lambda_n=\frac{2L}{n},
\qquad
f_n=\frac{nv}{2L}=nf_1,
\qquad
f_1=\frac{v}{2L}
$$
10.5 Fourier Analysis / 傅里叶分析#
- Fourier idea / 傅里叶思想:periodic functions can be written as sums of sinusoidal functions / 周期函数可分解为正弦余弦叠加。
- Harmonic / 谐波:integer multiple of fundamental frequency / 基频整数倍。
- Square wave / 方波 often needs odd harmonics / 常由奇次谐波叠加表示。
- Physical meaning / 物理意义:complex waveforms are superpositions of simple sinusoidal waves / 复杂波形可分解成简单正弦波。
10.6 Doppler Effect / 多普勒效应#
- Doppler effect / 多普勒效应:observed frequency changes due to relative motion / 相对运动导致观测频率改变。
- Moving observer / 观察者运动:toward source increases frequency / 靠近声源频率升高。
- Moving source / 波源运动:toward observer shortens wavelength / 靠近观察者波长变短。
- For sound / 对声波:wave speed is relative to medium / 波速相对介质决定。
- Useful convention / 常用记号:$v$ wave speed, $v_O$ observer speed, $v_S$ source speed; signs depend on whether moving toward each other / 符号取决于是否相向运动。
Problem Methods / 解题方法#
- Read $kx - \omega t$ / 读波函数:方向、$A$, $k$, $\omega$, $\lambda$, $f$, $v$。
- Verify wave equation / 验证波动方程:compute second derivatives and require $\omega^2 = v^2 k^2$。
- Superposition / 叠加题:use trig identities / 用三角恒等式。
- Standing wave boundary / 驻波边界:fixed end means node / 固定端是波节。
- Fourier questions / 傅里叶题:先判断奇偶性,odd functions use sine series / 奇函数用正弦级数。
- Doppler questions / 多普勒题:先分清 source moving or observer moving / 先分清波源动还是观察者动。
Vocabulary / 生词#
- sinusoidal:正弦的
- amplitude:振幅
- wavelength:波长
- wave number:波数
- angular frequency:角频率
- energy density:能量密度
- phase difference:相位差
- beating:拍
- standing wave:驻波
- node:波节
- antinode:波腹
- harmonic:谐波
- Fourier analysis:傅里叶分析
- Doppler effect:多普勒效应
High-Frequency Exam Templates / 高频考试题型模板#
Template A: Free-Body and Constraint Problems / 受力与约束题#
- Draw free-body diagram / 画受力图。
- Choose axes / 选轴:斜面题沿斜面和垂直斜面,圆周题径向和切向。
- Write Newton's second law / 写牛顿第二定律。
$$
\sum \mathbf F=m\mathbf a
$$
- Add constraint equations / 加约束方程。
- Solve and check limiting cases / 求解并检查极限情况。
Template B: Energy Problems / 能量题#
- Identify conservative and non-conservative forces / 区分保守力和非保守力。
- Write the energy equation / 写能量方程。
$$
K_i+U_i+W_{\rm nc}=K_f+U_f
$$
- For rotation / 转动加上 $K_{\rm rot}$。
- For rolling / 滚动加上 $v=R\omega$。
Template C: Collision Problems / 碰撞题#
- Momentum conservation first / 先动量守恒。
- If elastic / 若弹性,再加动能守恒。
- If perfectly inelastic / 若完全非弹性,碰后共同速度。
- Check direction signs / 检查方向正负。
Template D: Central Force and Perturbed Orbit / 中心力与受扰轨道#
- Conserved angular momentum / 中心力下角动量守恒:
$$
L=mr^2\dot\theta
$$
- Write effective radial energy / 写径向等效能量:
$$
E=\frac{1}{2}m\dot r^2+\frac{L^2}{2mr^2}+V(r)
$$
- Circular orbit condition / 圆轨道条件:
$$
\frac{dU_{\rm eff}}{dr}=0
$$
- Small oscillation / 小振动:
$$
\omega_r^2=\frac{U_{\rm eff}''(r_0)}{m}
$$
Template E: Rolling Rigid Body / 滚动刚体#
- Translation / 平动:
$$
\sum F=Ma_{\rm cm}
$$
- Rotation / 转动:
$$
\sum \tau_{\rm cm}=I_{\rm cm}\alpha
$$
- Constraint / 约束:if no slipping / 无滑动时
$$
a_{\rm cm}=R\alpha
$$
- Energy / 能量:
$$
K=\frac{1}{2}Mv_{\rm cm}^2+\frac{1}{2}I_{\rm cm}\omega^2
$$
Template F: Coupled Oscillators / 耦合振动#
- Write linear equations / 写线性方程。
- Try normal coordinates / 尝试 $x_1+x_2$, $x_1-x_2$ 或 $\theta_1+\theta_2$, $\theta_1-\theta_2$。
- Get eigenfrequencies / 求简正频率。
- Superpose normal modes / 简正模叠加。
- Use initial conditions / 用初始条件定振幅和相位。
Template G: Wave Equation / 波动方程#
- Take a small element / 取小元。
- Find net restoring force / 求恢复力。
- Apply Newton's second law / 用牛顿第二定律。
- Use small-angle or continuum approximation / 用小角或连续近似。
- Match to $y_{tt} = v^2 y_{xx}$ / 对照标准波动方程读出波速。
Formula Checklist / 公式总表#
Kinematics / 运动学
$$
\begin{aligned}
v&=\frac{dx}{dt},
&
a&=\frac{dv}{dt}=\frac{d^2x}{dt^2},\\
v&=v_0+at,
&
x&=x_0+v_0t+\frac{1}{2}at^2,\\
v^2&=v_0^2+2a\Delta x,
&
\mathbf r&=x\hat{\mathbf i}+y\hat{\mathbf j}+z\hat{\mathbf k}.
\end{aligned}
$$
Newton, work, energy, momentum / 牛顿定律、功、能量、动量
$$
\begin{aligned}
\sum\mathbf F&=m\mathbf a,
&
mg-bv&=m\frac{dv}{dt},\\
W&=\int\mathbf F\cdot d\mathbf r,
&
P&=\mathbf F\cdot\mathbf v,\\
W_{\rm net}&=\Delta K,
&
\mathbf F&=-\nabla U,\\
E&=K+U,
&
\mathbf p&=m\mathbf v,\\
\mathbf J&=\Delta\mathbf p,
&
\mathbf F&=\frac{d\mathbf p}{dt}.
\end{aligned}
$$
Gravitation and rotation / 引力与转动
$$
\begin{aligned}
F_g&=\frac{GmM}{r^2},
&
U_g&=-\frac{GmM}{r},\\
v_{\rm orbit}&=\sqrt{\frac{GM}{r}},
&
T_{\rm orbit}&=2\pi\sqrt{\frac{r^3}{GM}},\\
v_{\rm esc}&=\sqrt{\frac{2GM}{R}},
&
\boldsymbol\tau&=\mathbf r\times\mathbf F,\\
\sum\tau&=I\alpha,
&
I&=\int r^2\,dm,\\
I&=I_{\rm cm}+Md^2,
&
K_{\rm rot}&=\frac{1}{2}I\omega^2,\\
\mathbf L&=\mathbf r\times\mathbf p,
&
L_{\rm fixed\,axis}&=I\omega.
\end{aligned}
$$
Rolling and oscillation / 滚动与振动
$$
\begin{aligned}
v_{\rm cm}&=R\omega,
&
a_{\rm cm}&=R\alpha,\\
\ddot x+\omega^2x&=0,
&
x(t)&=A\cos(\omega t+\phi),\\
\omega_{\rm spring}&=\sqrt{\frac{k}{m}},
&
\omega_{\rm pendulum}&=\sqrt{\frac{g}{L}},\\
m\ddot x+b\dot x+kx&=0,
&
m\ddot x+b\dot x+kx&=F_0\cos(\omega_d t).
\end{aligned}
$$
Waves / 波动
$$
\begin{aligned}
y_{\rm right}&=f(x-vt),
&
y_{\rm left}&=f(x+vt),\\
\frac{\partial^2y}{\partial t^2}
&=v^2\frac{\partial^2y}{\partial x^2},
&
v_{\rm string}&=\sqrt{\frac{T}{\mu}},\\
y(x,t)&=A\sin(kx-\omega t+\phi),
&
k&=\frac{2\pi}{\lambda},\\
\omega&=2\pi f,
&
v&=\frac{\omega}{k}=\lambda f,\\
\lambda_n&=\frac{2L}{n},
&
f_n&=\frac{nv}{2L},\\
f_{\rm beat}&=|f_1-f_2|.
\end{aligned}
$$
附件#
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